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     Lai Yi Tak Eva (rabbiteva) New member Username: rabbiteva Post Number: 5 Registered: 11-2004 Posted From: 218.103.129.191 Rating: N/A |
Thanks for your advice. | ||
| Lai Yi Tak Eva (rabbiteva) New member Username: rabbiteva Post Number: 3 Registered: 11-2004 Posted From: 203.218.84.241 Rating: |
This long answer has detailed solid treatment of the congresses. You must have spent much time on it. May be just too long. Think if you can write at the same length in exam without reference book. The focus of the answer is ok with many examples from congresses and events. To improve, point out in the beginning explicitly the basis of their disagreement on peace. The conservative Protocol Powers equated peace with no change in status-quo (refelcted by the spirit of Holy Alliance); Britain thought peace was kept if the Vienna Settlement was not violated and balance of power maintained (following the spirit of Quadruple Alliance). Then pick up evidences from various congresses/events to support your view. Some notes from this site: Different views of peace Britain - to guarantee frontiers of 1815 and no return of the Bonapartist, no intervention Austria, Russia, Prussia - to maintain status-quo of 1815, to suppress revolutions, intervention. a. Aix-la-Chapelle: Russia & Prussia proposed an alliance against revolutions to keep status-quo. Br disagreed & refused to hold regular meetings unless Vienna Settlement was violated. b. Troppau: Aust, Pru, Ru drew up Troppau Protocol (to suppress revolutions), Br & France did not approve (reject intervention). c. Laibach & Verona: Br did not agree to intervene in the Spanish revolt. Chances are that you'll get more insight if you bother to read David Thomson's book (the chapter) on the congress system. --Admin Plz help me to mark on this essay: HKAL 1998 (Europe) ¡§The breakdown of the Concert of Europe was largely due to the increasing differences among the Powers over the issue of how peace could be maintained¡¨Elaborate on this statement. Concert of Europe is referred to a method of diplomacy by conference to settle disputes and to maintain peace and order in Europe. It was instituted by the Article 6th of the Quadruple Alliance. It lasted from 1818, the Aix-La Chapelle to 1825, Congress of St Petersburg. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe was mainly due to the increasing differences among the Powers over the issue of how peace could be maintained. After the 20 years Napoleonic War. Great Powers were longing for peace and started to realize the possibility of co-operation to maintain peace and keep the balance of power in Europe. The Vienna Settlement in 1815 provided an example for the powers to follow in future. During the Congress of Vienna, Castlereagh, the British foreign secretary imposed an idea of restoring the balance of power and believed it would give its members¡¦ peace and security. All powers agreed his idea. However, how to maintain peace and the balance? This question left unsolved and develop different view among the powers on this issue. Because of Castlereagh idea of the balance of power therefore after the Congress of Vienna, powers began to discuss how to keep the balance of power and peace in Europe. Castlereagh again imposed an idea that peace could be maintained if periodic meetings are held to settle their common interest. He said that peace could be maintained in a spirit of moderation and justice on the part of the powers. Powers agreed with his idea, they thought it was the way to reduce the danger of war to a minimum. Therefore they produced 2 documentaries in 1815 in order to show their intention to co-operate to maintain peace. One was the article 6th of Quadruple Alliance and the other was Holy Alliance. The article 6th of Quadruple Alliance was marked the beginning of the Concert of Europe. According to the article 6th of Quadruple Alliance on 20th November 1815 agreed that the four powers which are Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia would meet at fixed periods to discuss measure that would be ¡§most salutary for the response and prosperity of the nations and for maintaining the peace of Europe¡¨. The Tsar Alexander I introduced holy Alliance in 26th September 1815. He tried to establish a new international order based not on the traditional diplomacy but on the principle of Christianity. He hoped this document achieved not only the relations among the powers but their domestic affairs as well. His belief was ¡§Protect religion, peace and justice¡¨. However it did not get the support from other powers. Britain refused to sign the document. Even those who had signed did not take the measure seriously except the Tsar Metternich, the chancellor of Austrian Empire even regarded it as a ¡§high sounding nothing¡¨. As compared with the Holy Alliance, the Quadruple Alliance was of greater practical value. Holy Alliance later was made used by Metternich as a link between three great absolutist powers and contributed to the break down of Concert of Europe. Holly Alliance came to be regarded by European liberals as a hateful compact of despots against the liberties of mankind. In the Quadruple Alliance powers had their common idea on how to keep peace. They have their common enemy, France. They were promised in the document that they would use all their forces to prevent general tranquility from again begin disturbed by France. Thus the post war co-operation of the powers worked best as long as France was their common object to keep peace. They thought peace could be maintained as long as they kept a watchful eye on France. However after 1818 their common enemy disappeared and their attitude on how to keep peace became differed. After the occupation of France ended, the signs of disagreement on peace keeping method came to force. In 1818 France had already paid off her indemnity and so the future relations between the powers and France should be discussed and also the Spanish colonial question, because the Spain colonies rise up for independence. Hence the Aix-La Chapelle was held in 1818. In order to make complete settlement with France, its final adjustment of reparation and authorization of the withdrawal of occupation troops. During the conference, Russia raised the question of future Alliance and he also issued a doctrine to ask for general intervention on Spanish colonial question. The Tsar feared that the democracy would spread elsewhere, no monarch would be safe and the Christian union would be dissolved. He believed in ¡§bound in law and in fact¡¨. He asked the powers to maintain the settlement at Vienna and guarantee all existing legitimate regimes. He insisted that maintaining the political situation right at that time was the best way to preserve peace. His proposal annoyed Britain who was a liberal-minded country. Britain stated that freezing the existing political situation by collecting pledges to support established powers was not the method to keep peace. She said no British government could give such promise except in particular cases, only after considering the nature of the regime in question. The Tsar proposal was turned down the Spanish Colonial question was left untouched. The Aix-la Chapelle only achieved to readmit France into the rank of a great power. The Quadruple Alliance then turned into Quintuple Alliance. Aix-La Chapelle has marked the beginning of the different principle of powers towards the method to preserve peace. They all wanted to keep peace but they have different interpretations on peace and this made them to have different views on how to keep peace. With their common enemy disappeared so their views started to become differed. Britain deemed that peace could be hold by prevention of military expansion of France. She believed that the revolts in Europe would not threaten the peace in Europe. She believed that revolts are domestic affairs and there is no need to interfere. To the others, peace can only be kept with the absence of revolution, liberal or national in Europe. They have their reasons as they learned that once change started, it got out of control. The French Revolution is a remarkable example. It had produced chaos, a bloody reign of terror, military dictatorship and even international war. Peace could only be preserved according to the principle of legitimacy. They thought that revolution would threaten the peace in Europe. They argued that they should suppress all revolutionary movements in Europe to maintain peace and stability in order to stop the whole process of change before it had a chance to start. Britain was only afraid of another French ruler like Napoleon would threaten the peace but her partners were afraid of all movements against legitimate rulers. They adopted the theory of stemming the torrent. With the increasing difference view of peacekeeping method, the Concert of Europe eventually collapsed. The differences among the powers become more contradictory after 1818. In 1820 the Spanish revolution broke out due to King Ferdinand VII misgovernment. The Tsar then reopened the issue he imposed in Aix-La Chapelle to interfere and suppress the revolution in Spain. He also wanted to check the tide of peace in Europe. Austria did not support the Tsar¡¦s idea at first due to the fear of the increasing Russia influence will upset the balance of power and the peace in Europe. Britain also objected the Tsar¡¦s suggestion. Castlereagh issued a famous memorandum called ¡§State Paper¡¨ on 5th May 1820. It stated clearly about Britain¡¦s attitude on how to conserve peace in Europe. In the memorandum, it declared that the Concert of Europe original purpose was to maintain peace in Europe. Britain as a diplomats of the continent, owed her present dynasty and constitution to an internal revolution. She could not deny to other countries the same right to change their form of government. Therefore Britain would neither interfere in the domestic affairs of other European states nor view with indifference the intervention of other powers. This memorandum had clearly announced Britain¡¦s view on peace and the method of how to retain it. Powers except Russia was eager to suppress revolution. Hence when Britain¡¦s state paper imposed, the Spanish question was untouched. The Spanish disorder continued and the idea of revolts started to spread to Europe. In July military insurrection in Naples forced their King to grant constitution causing enormous impetus to revolutionary agitation throughout Italian Peninsula. In August there was revolt broke out in Portugal that alarmed Metternich, the chancellor of Austrian Empire. He could see that Austria could only survive in a world where all the checks and balances were set to preserve peace. He described Austria is `a man has an interest in putting out the flames when his neighbors¡¦ house is on fire¡¦. Therefore he was alarmed, as revolts in his eyes would upset the balance and peace in Europe. He urged the powers concert on measures to meet European emergency. The Congress of Troppau then was called in October 1820. Britain and France only sent observers to the Congress. There, over Britain¡¦s objection, they adopted Metternich proposition that the concert should interfere to stop revolutions in Europe to defend peace. It laid down the principle that changes brought by revolutionary and would not be accepted as legal by powers, asserted the right of the powers to interfere to put such changes down. The three reactionary powers Austria, Russia, Prussia signed the Troppau Protocol in November 1820 and it was made in the name of the Holy Alliance though the original meaning has changed all over. Britain strongly objected it as in her opinion it was not a way to keep peace, it accused the eastern powers were using ¡§keep peace¡¨ as an excuse to interfere other states domestic affairs to increase their influence. Castlereagh regarded it as ¡§destitute of common sense¡¨. Here, due to their increasing different view on keeping peace, suspicious developed and this played a part in the collapse of the Concert of Europe. Britain proclaimed publicly she would not support the Protocol. The difference of how peace could be maintained among powers became more and more apparent in Second Congress of Troppau with different views, the separation of Europe into two sides began to take place. With Britain and France as liberal west and Austria, Prussia and Russia as the autocratic East. This split signifies that the Concert of Europe started to break down. With different believes on how to preserve peace, the Concert of Europe split into two sides and finally led to the collapse of the Concert of Europe. The Congress of Laibach in 1821 was actually the continuation of the previous Congress at Troppau. Britain only sent observer to the Congress. Despite Britain protest, Metternich¡¦s principle of intervention was adopted to keep peace and order in Europe. Alliance dispatched Austria to suppress the revolution in Naples and Piedmont Sardinia. Castlereagh objected but he did not deter the powers from adjourning to Laibach, Austrians interfere in Naples and put down revolts in Piedmont. For Castlereagh, suppression was against the declared British policy of non-intervention. Intervention was thought to be necessary only if Napoleon returned to power and only if the 1815 settlement was impaired. Therefore he objected the powers to interfere as a way to keep peace. However the revolts in Spain and Portugal were still remained active. Metternich thought that intervention in these two places would mean marching of Russian army across Central Europe and Russia influence in Europe would then increased. To Metternich the growing influence of Russia would be a threat to the peace in Europe so he objected to interfere in Spain and Portugal Revolutions. With Metternich and Castlereagh protest, no action was taken regarding the revolts in the Spanish peninsula. A clear line was now drawn between Britain and the reactionary powers in Europe. Due to their different perspective towards how to uphold the peace in Europe, the breach between them was made even wider in this third Congress. The Concert of Europe has marched a further step to its disintegration. Before the Congress of Verona, changes had been taken to influence the Concert of Europe. With the death of Castlereagh, Canning succeeds his place as the British foreign secretary. His attitude towards how to keep peace was even stronger than Castlereagh. He was more liberal minded and strongly protested against the intervention of the powers. He enforced Britain¡¦s non-intervention policy. Canning objected the Concert of Europe. He thought the systems of ¡§periodic reunions¡¨ of powers are highly dangerous. Moreover in his eyes, the Concert of Europe tended to establish the system of general intervention by force in the internal affairs of different countries. It is a system which Britain by the very nature of its government was bound to oppose Britain represented by Canning¡¦s non-intervention principle on the one hand and the reactionary powers represented by the Troppau Protocol on the other, their distinct sentiment on how to keep peace increased and ultimately wrecked the Congress System. In Congress of Verona, powers discussed about the Spanish revolt and the Greek¡¦s, too. All the representatives of the members in the Quintuple Alliance attended this Congress to discuss these issues. Canning instructed the representative of Britain that if there was a determined project to interfere by force or by menace then come what may, Britain would not be a party. It is a bombshell and prevented the alliance as a whole form acting by army force in Spain, though the reactionary powers support France to take separate action to restore the Spanish King, Ferdinand VII. With Austria strong protest, powers turned down the Tsar proposal to help Greece in the Greek revolts. France and the reactionary powers even intended to help Spain to get back its South American colonies. Since in their eyes if the colonies gained independence, the revolt ideas would spread to Europe just like the Spain revolt and would threaten peace. Therefore according to the principle of legitimacy, they wanted to interfere. Britain strongly opposes their means to sustain peace. She decided to take action to stop the reactionary powers. She encouraged the America President Monroe to issue a ¡§Monroe Doctrine¡¨ in 1823 to drop the European powers hands off South America. Britain adopted ¡§intervention to bring about non-intervention of others¡¨ to against its members in the Concert of Europe. This act contributed a lot to the break down of the Concert of Europe. After the Congress of Verona, Britain refused to send a British representative to the other congresses, the congress in January 30, 1824 and in November 1824. Britain said the Concert of Europe had lost its original purpose to keep peace and regarded it as the ¡§Witch Hunting Organization¡¨. Other four great powers continue their meetings, so the Concert of Europe did not break down. However the congress of St. Petersburg in 1825 was broke up in May in very bad terms. To all intents and purposes, this was the end of the Concert of Europe. Later Powers met only on ad hoc basis. According to the sixth article of the Quintuple Alliance, regular congresses should be held periodically. Since this article was not followed, the Concert of Europe broke down. Congress of Verona implied the break down of the Concert of Europe. Powers¡¦ different attitude to retain peace has been increasing since Aix-La Chapelle. Canning¡¦s attitude damaged the ¡§moral solidarity¡¨ of Europe and injured the Concert of Europe. Suspicious and jealousy continue to grow due to their different attitude. Finally led to the break down of the Concert of Europe. Because of their difference widened, Britain even interferes to stop its members¡¦ decision. This shows how non-cooperative among the powers. With different interpretation on peace, they have great difference on how to sustain peace and the powers were inconsistent towards how to keep peace. The failure of the Concert of Europe also has other factors at work but they were less likely to be main cause of it. The work of national interest should not be denied. It was an indirect cause causing the collapse of the Concert of Europe. Since powers have their own national interest, this led to their different views on how to keep peace. Outbreak of revolts also led to the disintegration of the Concert of Europe. If there was absence of revolts, there would be no increasing difference point of view among the powers and the Concert of Europe may last longer. Inherent of the Concert of Europe also played its part in the break down of the Concert of Europe. It has no permanent organization and staff. Powers could send observers to the meeting such as France and Britain. This showed their dishonor to the Concert of Europe and it was not surprising that the Concert of Europe finally break down. In fact there was no agreement about how to keep peace between or how for they were to take common action when the European peace threatened. Therefore this caused the different view over the issue how to keep peace. Though there were other factors at work, the increasing difference of the powers over the issue on how to keep peace was the main bone of contention between Britain and her partners in the ensuring years and the main cause of the eventually break down of the Concert of Europe. Hence the break down of the Concert of Europe was largely due to the increasing differences among the powers over the issue how peace could be maintained. |
