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     choy pui yiu (imsbbcf07c.netvigator.com - 203.198.2.7) Rating: N/A |
1) Italian nationality originated from Napoleon・s rule. In 1797, Napoleon drove the Austrian away from the Italian Peninsula, and then replaced the Austrians as rulers. However, in 1818, Napoleon was defeated and much of what he did was destroyed. At the Vienna Congress, Italy was then divided. Austrian controlled, directly and indirectly, Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and Tuscany; the Bourdons took over the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies; the Pope was restored to the Papal States. Only the Kingdom of Sardinia was under the Italian rule. Italy existed only on the map, Metternich called Italy a ：geographical expression；. The Vienna Congress divided Italy into four major parts made up one of the major obstacles to the Italian unification, that・s the problem of disunity among the Italian states. The other major obstacles are the great power of Austria; the lack of capable leadership; the lack of foreign aid and the French intervention. First of all, the lack of feeling for unity made a great barrier to Italian unity. The factors accounting for it are: first, the different tradition of localism and separatism. The ：way of life； differed between southern and northern Italy and also there were no national flag. Thus, the consciousnesses of a common nationality were little developed; second, the restored of autocratic rule, in somewhere like the Papal States and the Two Sicilies, opposed any plans for unity since they were likely to result in the loss of their power and privileges; last, the clash of aims among the revolutionaries themselves. They held different views on the structure of government that some supported Mazzini to set up a democratic republic; some supported Pipe Pius IX to run Italy into a federal state and the left supported Charles Albert to set up a constitutional government. All these factors leading the people cannot co-operate together to work for an aim, the Italian unification. Second, the great power of Austria made a big problem to the unity. Austrian controlled the major states of Italy, Lombardy, Venetia and also Parma, Modena and Tuscany. To unify Italy, Italian must take back these states. The Carbonari worked actively in the 1820s, organizing revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States in 1830. However, all these revolts were easily put down by the Austrian troops. After these revolts, Metternich even tightens his control over the Austrian Possessions in Italy. Third, the first attempt of unification, the 1848-9 revolutions, at the very beginning seemed successful. However it ended in failure. The main reason for the failure is the lack of capable leader. King Charles Albert was not a capable leader that he just possessed little military skills and had no distinguished generals on whom he could rely. Initially his forces were successful, capturing the fortress of Peschiera and winning the battle of Goito. However, he failed to pursue his advantage, which gave the Austrian time to consolidate their position and to gain reinforcements. Forth, the lack of foreign aids in the 1848 revolution also a problem of unity. Created by the poor decision of Charles Albert to fight Austria without foreign support, believing in the maxim ：Italia fara da se；. The Lombards had been anxious to enlist the help of the French, but France was discouraged by Britain from playing any active part in the rebellion. Finally, the French intervention was also an obstacle to the unity. The French intervention in Rome ended the republic, which was set up by Mazzini and Garibaldi in the attempt at the unification in 1849. Then the Pope was restored and well-protected by the French Troops. Although there are many obstacles to the unity, they can overcome one by one and finally the unification completed. The 1848 failure teaches the Italian a lesson that setting up a constitutional government under the leadership of an Italian king seemed more acceptable. Also they realize that Italy was too weak to expel the foreign control. Many Italian then learnt the importance of self-strengthening and foreign aid. The decline of Austria after the dismissal of Metternich made Austria no longer strong. The loss of Metternich greatly reduced the position and strength of Austria・s influence on the Italian states. Therefore Austria was no longer an obstacle to the unification. Since Napoleon III wanted to expand into Italy, he then turned to help the Italian unification by alliance with Piedmont and gave active military support to Piedmont-Sardinia in the Austrian-Piedmontese War in 1859. French troops were sent to help the Italian to fight against the Austrians. As a result, Piedmont succeeds in recapturing Lombardy. Greatly encouraged by the Italian success, the three central states also voted to join Piedmont-Sardinia. With the help of French, he was no longer an obstacle but can account for a foreign aid to Italy. By the skilful diplomacy of Cavour, Italy won another two foreign aid, Britain and Prussia. Unlike France who have ambition to gain Savoy and Nice from Italy. Britain did not have any territorial ambitions in Italy. She supported the Italians because she was sympathetic to the Italian cause. Yet, she didn・t intervene directly in the wars. She proclaimed the policy of ．benevolent neutrality・ when Garibaldi took Naples and Sicily. This policy prevented France and Austria from stopping Garibaldi・s conquests. Actually, the British sent warships to help Garibaldi・s followers to land in Sicily. At first, Prussia was an obstacle to Italian unity by showing the sign of helping Austria, but in 1859, Prussia changed her policy by allying with Italy against Austria. In 1866, Prussia with Piedmont-Sardinia won Austria and Venetia was recovered to Italians. She again helped the Italians in1870 when a war broke out between France and Prussia. This led to the recall of the French soldiers in Rome. After the retreat of French soldiers, Victor Emmanuel II occupied Rome and completed the unification. Finally, there are four able leaders help to contribute the unification. They were Mazzini, Garibaldi, King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour. Mazzini, he was the first Italian to promote nationalism and to work actively towards a united Italy through political action. Though his republican failed in 1849, his role in awakening Italian nationalism was very important. Garibaldi also played an important role in unification. He was a guerrilla leader who provided Italy with the necessary military force and also he was a true patriot, he put the interest of unified Italy first, and was willing to give up his own personal interest. He surrendered his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II, thus made the union of southern Italy with Piedmont-Sardinia possible. King Victor Emmanuel II, his greatest contribution was his appointment of Cavour as the prime minister in 1852 and gave him full support. His appointment marked a turning point in the unification movement. Besides, taking advantage of the favourable circumstances in Europe. He took Venetia and Rome and completed the unification. Cavour contributed greatly to the unification. He succeeded in establishing Piedmont・s leadership in Italian unification by carrying out a series of reforms to make Piedmont the strongest Italian state. In addition, he succeeded in enlisting foreign aid through his skilful diplomacy winning active military support from France, British and Prussia. Before his death in 1861, he had helped Victor Emmanuel II to extend Piedmontese power to the greater parts of Italy. To be brief, the major obstacles to the Italian unification can be overcome one by one by the help of foreign aid and the capable leadership. | ||
| Wong Kei Cheong (Zero) Rating: N/A |
Italy was regarded as a geographical expression until 1859. At that time, she was formed by eight states: Lombardy, Venetia in the north was under Austrians・ rule; Modena, Parma and Tuscany were under Austrian protestion; the Papal states cut Italy into two halves. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were under Bourbon kings and only Kingdom of Sardinia was under Italian king. However, Italy was unified in 1870 at last. But as we known, Italy couldn・t make herself. ．Italy could not make herself!・ experience told us. In fact, Italy had tried to unify herself in 1848. The revolt ended caused of several reasons: First, the Austrians were too powerful that she held the famous "Quadrilateral" of Verona, Peschiera, Legnago and Mantua (all places of great strength). This gave their army a link with Austria so that they could receive reinforcements. Mores, long-range artillery bombardment, cholera and starvation forced Manin in Venice to be defeated Second, lack of external aid made Italy hard in the revolts. At the beginning of the revolt, Charles Albert was determined to fight Austria without foreign support. He believed in the maxim "Italia fara da se". Later, even the Lombards had tried to enlist the help of the French, but France was discouraged by Britain from playing any active part in the rebellion. Third, Italy was diversified herself. Mutual suspicions and jealousies prevented effective co-ordination between the Italian states. This rose a strong local feeling and Charles Albert was not popular in the rest of Italy. Outside Piedmont there was little organization to the revolts, and there was a diversity of aims. Numerous groups, royalists, republicans and autonomists, pursued different objectives, which made concerted action difficult. For example, in Milan the upper bourgeoisie supported Charles Albert, while the lower bourgeoisie under Cattaneo were republican-minded and wanted autonomy within a federation. In Tuscany, owing to the opposition of Piedmont and the Pope, the idea of calling an Italian Constituent Assembly, for settling the conditions of union among the states, were failed. Fourth, Italy was lack of outstanding statesmen or generals at that time. Piedmont had no great statesman capable of welding the various groups who were hostile to Austria into one united body. Even Charles Albert, who was courageous and determined, was possessed little military skill and had no distinguished generals on whom he could rely. Therefore, Italy couldn・t make herself. Even there had able leadership later, Italy was still not strong enough to unify herself. But learning from 1848 revolt, Cavour learnt a valuable lesson that Italy was too weak. This weakness was brought by the diversification of Italian states. So, he chose Piedmont as the fundamental to start the unification. The movement was divided into three stages: In 1855, Piodment joined France and Britain in Crimean War against Russia. In 1858, back by France, Cavour provoked a war with Austria. The Franco-Piedmentese troops defeated Austria, and Piedmont gained Lambardy. Later, France helped Italy to hold a plebiscite in January 1860 to lead Tuscany, Parma and Modena demanded union with Piedmont. An infant Italy was born in northwestern Italy under France help. In May 1860, an other leader, Garibaldi soon conquered Sicily and Naples, and liberated south of Italy with Bertain indirect support. In October, Garibaldi hailed Victor Emmanuel 11 ．King of Italy・ and held plebiscite to confirm Piedmont annexation of Siciliy, Naples and the Papal states. With the recognisation of Britain, Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in March 1861. But Rome and Venetia were still out of Italy. With Prussia help, Victor Emmanuel 11 got Venetia in 1866 after Austro-Prussian War. Even in1870, Franco-Prussian War broke out and French troops withdrew from Rome. At that time, Victor Emmanel eventually unified Italy. In short, as a small and nation in Europe, Italy was too weak to withdraw the powers out of Italy. Unification seemed imposible to her. But by the foreign aids in addiction to the able leadership, she strived the goal at last. | ||
| Chan Wing Yiclaire Rating: N/A |
Sir ,may I cancel the previous answer,and this is the right i want to submit.Thanks ^_^ 1) Italy in 1789 was made up of about a dozen small states. However, after the conquest of Nepoleon, there were only three large states-the Kingdom of Naples, the papal States and the Kingdom of Italy which are efficiently ruled.This gave the Italians a sense of unity. Nationalism was born in this period.Moreover, after the Congress of Vienna, the Italians were bitterly disappointed at the Settlement since they had to live under strict foreign control.Yet, this hadn't affect their confident of unity but they became more determined to do To unite the numerous sovereign states of Italy was not an easy task,however, the unification of Italy was finally accomplished with the capture of Rome which was assisted by Prussia.Did Prussia really help her? How? Sending army??!The obstaclesto the unification of Italy was overcome by the able leadership and foreign aid. Now ,let move our attention to how the Italians overcome their obstacles on the way of their unification. First of all ,the interal disunity made the unification difficult. There were different ideas of the forms of government- a republic, a federation under the Pope, or a constitutional monarchy under Piedmont. This declined the strength of Italians as the support different government and made them difficult to concentrate their force to overthrow the foreign rulers. There were also the external problem,one of the major obstacles of Italy unification was the opposition of Austria. She was the strongest ruler in Italy that she got Lombardy and Venetia which are the vital lands of Italy.Besides, the Hapsburg rulers were restored to Modena,Parma and Tuscany,these rulers are the family of royal Austria.This contributed to the failure of the revolts of 1820,1821 and 1830. The revolts in 1820, led by Carbonari members,revolted in Naples.They forced Ferdinand I to grant constitution.In 1821, a similar uprising broke out in Piedmont and Lombardy.In addition, the 1830 the carbonari members and other patriotic Italians rose in arms in Parma, Modena and the Papal States for demanding a constitutional government.However, all these revolts were defeated by Austria troops. Therefore, the unification of Italy was difficult as Austria was so strong that they were no match for Austrians. Another obstacle to the Italian unification was France. Since France wanted to set up a central Italian federation under the presidency of the Pope which France can had directly influence on it.This contributed to the failure of the 1848 revolutions.In march 1848, Charles Albert, King of Piedmont declared war on Austria, however, Pope Pius IX announced that he was not at war with Austria and retreated from the battlefield as he was afraid that he would lose his power after the unification. The Pope asked for France's help and Napoleon sent a French army to stop all the revolutions. Without the Pope's help, it was difficult to achieve the unification. Howerver, all these obstacles were overcome one by one. Start another paragraph From the 1848 revolutions the Italians realized that the idea of setting up a constituitional government under the leadership of an Italian king seemed to be more acceptable.Why? Therefore, they became unitied as they knew what was most practical. As a result, they gave their full support to Victor Emmanuel II and their forces strengthened. Too brief, not explained clearly for such change of heart. After the dismissal of Metternich, the position and strength of Austria declined greatly. Besides, since Italy won sympathy from France and Britain and co-operated with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War as Austria was their common enemy, this made Austria isolate. This gave a chance to Italy to capture Venetia and Rome that Austria was no longer an obstacle of the unification.Too brief on Austria... start another paragraph as you will talk the removal of another obstacle! In addition,as Napoleon III wanted to expand into Italy and France became an alliance with Piedmont in 1859. Therefore, France was no longer an obstacle to the Italian unification. With the help of France, Piedmont succeed in recapturing Lombardy.Although France deflected in the middle of the war ,the success of Piedmont stimulated burning in Parma, Modena and Tuscany who decided to join Piedmont in 1860. this made the unification of Italy possible. Besides the favourable external circumstance, there must be abe leaders insides to facilitate the movement. Mazzini who promoted nationalist feelings among the Italians, this awakened Italian nationalism and made them unitied.This point be put above Garibaldi surrender his conquests to Victor Emmanuel made the union of southern Italy with Piedmont-Sardinia possible. There were two most influential leaders- Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour. Victor Emmanuel II's decision to appoint Cavour marked a turning point in the unification. In addition, the skilful diplomat of Cavour won the sympathy of France and Britain and made Italy more strong through aa series of reform. All these contributed to the success of the unification. Re-organize the answer. What obstacles did the leaders help to remove?? Not opening another paragraph to talk about leaders without relating to the question. IMPORTANT!!! All in all, due to the Italian's unity, Austria's decline and the ambition of France adding with the foreign aid and the able leadership helped to overcome the trouble of the Italian unification. Approach is OK. Answer too brief in showing obstacles be removed. Better organization of paragraphs needed. Grade: B/B- | ||
| Yip Ming Wai (Brenda) Rating: |
(May I hand in this homework here instead of papers?)Yes. 2) "Italy could not make herself." Do you agree? Explain your answer with reference to her unification. Italy, under the arrangement of Vienna Settlement in 1815, was divided into several parts which were ruled by different foreign political groups, except the Piedmont of Sardinia. I do agree that if there was no foreign support and favourable circumstances, Italy could hardly unify herself. During the 1848 Italian Risorgimento, the Italians had risen up to fight for independence. However, this movement ended in failure. It had exploited the weaknesses of such a movement led by Italians themselves. One of them was the disunity among the Italians. For example, in Milan the upper class supported Charles Albert to form a constitutional government, and the lower class believed that a united Italy should be a republic which was suggested by Mazzini. Differences between the north and the south of Italy could be found. As the North of Italy was relatively rich, they were reluctant to unification. Such rivalries could hardly be eliminated even after 1848 failure. Able leaders could also hardly be found. For example, Mazzini always ended in failure that his ideal was impractical. Moreover, once foreign powers intervened, Italian military power was not enough to fight against them. For instance, in the 1848 Risorgimento movement, Louis Napoleon of France stepped in and sent troops to Rome and defeat Garibaldi. Hence, throughout the progress of Italian unification, the use of foreign aid had played the most important part. France had helped Piedmont to gain Lombardy in 1859, Parma, Modena, Tuscany as well as Romaga in 1860. In gaining Lombardy, France helped by using forces. And she had come to a secret treaty with Russia in which stated that Russia would be neutral in the event of a Franco-Austrian War and Austria would therefore receive no help. In gaining the others,?? France helped by holding plebiscites. In gaining the laters, because of the presence of French troops, there were majorities in favour of annexation of Italy. Not clear. Give details here to support your point fully. Britain also gave moral support to Italy. After the Truce of Villafranca, Britain favoured the creation of a unitary Italian state. She had urged France and Austria to stop intervening in Italian affairs. Russell, the leader of Britain at that time, suggested to Napoleon to allow the duchies to vote on the question of Piedmont annexation. Such action of Britain had more or less gave pressure and discouraged concerted action by the three eastern powers in Italy. Especially during Garibaldi's emergence on Naples and Sicily, Russell sent the famous October Dispatch to the European powers which clearly stated British support to Italy. Therefore, Garibaldi could get these two states easily. Prussia helped Italy in the final stage of unification. In annexing Venetia, Italy allied with Prussia. Italian army was defeated at Custozza and her navy was also defeated at Lissa. Only Prussia was victorious, and Italy was rewarded for participation by being granted Venetia. Here we could see that Itaian military power was so poor that could do nothing in unification. Some may argue that Cavour was an able man in leading the unification. Yet it is worth considering that Cavour, at the beginning, had no intention of unifying all of the Italian states. Moreover, he could not work well with Garibaldi, who was regarded as important in physical forces. In fact, Cavour refused to support him since he was afraid that Garibaldi might set up a republic while he only wanted autocracy. Concerning the argument stated that it was Cavour's, represented Italy, contribution in getting foreign aid (through participating in the Crimean War). However, we must realise that if the Powers did not agree to give any help, no matter how good was his diplomacy, Italy could actually do little by herself. good argument. For example, after gaining Lombardy, Venetia should also be in Piedmont's hand, as France agreed in the Plombieres meeting. Nevertheless, when Russia seemed to mobolise her troops to help Austria, France stopped helping Piedmont immediately without consulting Cavour. At last, Piedmont could only come to terms with Austria in the Peace Settlement of Villafranca that she was unable to get Venetia in 1859. Moreover, If Italy was capable enough, Cavour would have not made any compromise of ceding Savoy and Nice in order to gain the support of France. Favourable international circumstances were more important and useful than Italy's own efforts. The rivalries among the Powers made Italy unification succeed. For example, the annexation of Naples and Sicily was made smoother since the Powers adopted non-intervention based on their rivalries. With reference to the Anglo-French rivalry, both were afraid the other would try to gain in the unrest of southern Italy. With reference to the Austro-Prussian rivalry, although Austria wanted to gain Prussian support against Italy, she did not want to give any concession to Prussia in the matters of Germany. What's more, Prussia did not want to destroy her relationship between France and Britain, which might affect her German unification progress. Therefore, Prussia would never on Austrian side. From the above, we can observe that if the powers all stood against Italy why they should oppose Italy?, Italy would never achieve in unification. The occupation of Rome by Italy was only possible when the Franco-Prussia war broke out in 1866. This war forced France to withdraw her troops from Rome in order that she could fight Prussia. Taking this opportunity, Italy annexed Rome. Yet before that, Garibaldi had attempted to occupy Rome in 1862 but resulted in failure. Again, it meant that without the valuable circumstance, Italy would not have a complete unification. What's more, after the Crimean War, Austria was isolated. And at that time, her multi-racial empire domestic unrest as well as German affairs also drew her attention from Italian unification movement. Therefore, Italy received little intervention from Austria. All in all, if there were no foreign aid or favourable circumstances, there was no a unified Italy. It's because Italy, being so weak was unable to make itself a united state. A good argumentative answer. Grade: A/A- | ||
| ctk ( - 202.64.92.195) Rating: N/A |
1. What were the major obstacles to the Italian unification in the period 1815-70? How were these obstacles overcome? (1997) 2. "Italy could not make herself." Do you agree? Explain your answer with reference to her unification. |
