The major internal developments of Japan between 1931 and 1941.

The period between 1931 and 1941 was known as the “Dark Valley” in Japan. Internally, the country was increasingly chaotic, militarist and totalitarian.

Ultra-nationalism - in the 1930s, an aggressive ultra-nationalism emerged in Japan. Much of its leadership was to be found in the so-called “patriotic societies” formed by civilians as well as militarists. In addition to a few older societies such as the Kokuryukai, a number of extremist organizations, supported by fanatics, sprang up. Yuzonsha (Society for the Preservation of the National Essence) was founded in 1921 by Kita lkki; Sakurakai (Cherry Society) was founded by a number of army men in 1930.

Apart from their anti-capitalist, anti-western prejudices, these societies had no agreed policy in the positive sense. Yet they identified clearly the targets of attack: the political parties, the zaibatsu, and the bureaucrats which they accused of corrupting Japan’s “kokutai”. In addition, they advocated an expansionist policy on the Asian mainland and supported the exclusion of the West from continental Asia (Pan-Asianism).
These societies chose “direct action” - terrorist acts and assassinations to create confusion and to intimidate their opponents. They defended their actions as having been “purely motivated”.

Terrorist acts - murders and assassinations were prevalent in the early 1930s. Early in November 1930, Premier Hamaguchi was shot and seriously injured by a right-wing “patriot” because he and his cabinet had agreed to, despite vigorous opposition of the military services, the London Naval Disarmament Treaty.

Such acts of violence multiplied in the ensuing years. In early 1932, a number of murders took place in Japan. The victims were a former Minister of Finance and the chief director of Mitsui. They were killed by members of a secret society known as the “League of Blood”. Then in May 1932, Premier Inukai was shot to death in his official residence by a group of naval officers and army cadets. This “May 15 Incident” effectively put an end to party cabinet in Japan for the next thirteen years. Yet during trials of these young ultra-nationalist fanatics, there was much public sympathy with the murderers because their motives were regarded as purely unselfish. None received a capital sentence. In August 1935, the Chief of the General Affairs Bureau, General Nagata, was killed in his office. The most shocking incident was to occur in February 1936, as we shall see later.

Military insubordination - apart from these terrorist acts, military insubordination was serious, especially among junior army officers.
In 1931, there took place the March and October Incidents. The former was a plot among army officers in Tokyo. Members of Sakurakai, in conjunction with civilian extremists, planned a coup d’etat to place a military government in Japan. It was called off because the Minister of War, General Ugaki, made it clear that he disapproved most strongly of any “direct action” by the army. The latter was a conspiracy which envisaged the elimination of the cabinet, while in session, by air attack and the establishment of a military council in control of affairs. The plan was betrayed by its authors. Those involved, however, received mild punishment. The whole incident was carefully hushed up and kept secret to the public. It indicated that the high command was still reluctant to act strongly in maintaining discipline. Another conspiracy by civilian extremists was discovered in 1933. Its plot was similar to the October Incident - aerial bombardment of the government and the setting up of a military cabinet. Those involved were only sentenced to short terms of imprisonment.

The 1936 February Incident was the most famous mutiny in modern Japanese history. The insurgents included fifteen hundred officers stationed in Tokyo. On February 26, they killed two former premiers and the Inspector-General of Military Training. Both Premier Okada and Saionji narrowly escaped. The insurgents issued a manifesto declaring the Japan’s ills were due to such persons as the Genro, zaibatsu, and political parties, and that those responsible had to be killed. The government immediately declared martial law and ordered reinforcements from outside. Emperor Hirohito ordered the suppression of the rebellion. The mutineers finally gave in after several days of resistance. Thirteen of them, including Kita Ikki, were executed after secret court-martial.

After this incident, indiscipline within the army became less serious. On the other hand, the high command, by its ability to choose, as well as to veto, nominees for cabinet appointment, had a dominant influence on national policies as a whole. This military interference in politics finally led Japan on a dangerous course - expansion abroad and the building of a country organised for war.

End of party government - Premier Inukai’s administration (1931-2) was the last party cabinet in Japan until after the Pacific War. Inukai’s murder in the “May 15 Incident” demoralized the political parties - the Minseito and Seiyukai. Some factions broke away to ally with the ultra-nationalists; others remained within the parties, but gave increasing support to army policies. In fact, the army refused to supply a minister of war to a government headed by a party leader. Thus, the ensuing cabinets were led either by bureaucrats, or navy men, or army officers.
In the 1937 April elections to the Diet, there were signs of popular support of the parties for a campaign against the military’s control of politics. Yet once the China War broke out in July, the cries of national unity overwhelmed the politicians. Long before the parties were formally dissolved in 1940, the Diet had lost its power and become a body which rubber-stamped every government decision. Finally, in October 1940, all parties went into voluntary liquidation. The Imperial Rule Assistance Association was organized to absorb their members and pledged itself to rally opinion behind the nation’s policies.

Totalitarian measures - the China War since 1937 became a pretext for the passage of various laws that little by little transformed Japan into a militarist state. In late 1937, a Planning Board was established to coordinate the nation’s economic policy and an Imperial Headquarters was set up to provide for co-operation between army and navy. All key decisions were to be made at liaison conferences between the Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, War and Navy Ministers, and services Chief of Staff. These would then be confirmed at Imperial Conferences. Other ministers were excluded, except by invitation. Cabinet responsibility was therefore a shallow pretence.

In 1938, the National Mobilization Law was passed by the Diet. It increased the government’s powers of economic control, providing for the direction of labour and materials, the regulation of wages and prices, government operation of certain industries, and a system of national registration. Military spending rose sharply, “from under 500 million yen and 30 per cent of the budget in 1931 to 4,000 million yen and 70 per cent of the budget in 1937-8.”

Censorship was imposed on the press as well as the radio. Improvements on communications and bureaucratic methods made it easier to influence opinions and to bring opposition under police control. Liberals, both in and out of politics, faced the danger of arrest whenever they criticized the government’s policies and were subjected to a number of public pressures. In 1937, the Ministry of Education issued a book called “Principles of the National Polity” which at once became the main text for the course in ethics. Military training was made a compulsory part of education in 1938 and the time devoted to it increased steadily. At the same time, many foreign books were banned, and textbooks were rewritten in nationalist terms. Indoctrination, through the combined resources of press and radio, of schools and colleges, of patriotic societies, stressed the important principle that “service to the state was service in its highest form.” Moreover, patriotism taught that what was bad was foreign. Directing the national spiritual mobilization movement was the Central Alliance for the Mobilization of the National Spirit.

Conclusion - in brief, Japan in 1930s became increasingly militarist and totalitarian. Externally, the country embarked on a course of aggression which finally led her into war with China, the United States and the European Allies.