The major educational, military, judicial and religious reforms during the Meiji Era (1868-1912).

The Meiji leaders carried out a number of important reforms in the hope of Fukoku Kyohei (rich country, strong army). The following is a brief description of their reforms in several aspects.

Educational reforms -- educational reforms were carried out vigorously by the Meiji leaders with the assistance of foreign advisors. In 1872, a national educational system was laid down under the supervision of a Ministry of Education (1871). Japan was divided into eight educational regions, each was to have one university, thirty-two secondary schools, and thousands of primary schools. Children at the age of six must receive a certain degree of education. At the secondary level, there were also specialized schools such as normal schools (1872) and girls high school (1889). At the apex was the Tokyo Imperial University, opened in 1877.
Western knowledge was essential for the modernization of Japan. As stated in the Charter Oath 1868, "Knowledge shall be sought for all over the world and thus shall be strengthened the foundation of the imperial polity." Thus, students were sent abroad in search of knowledge. Also foreign experts, scholars and teachers were employed. They were, however, replaced as quickly as possible by their Japanese students and assistants or by Japanese returned from study abroad. By the turn of the century, few foreign experts remained. Thirdly, a Translation Bureau was set up to facilitate the spread of western knowledge.
Mon Arinori, Minister of Education, tried to ensure that the government had close supervision over education. The Ministry prescribed all textbooks, supervised schools through the local governments, and regulated all private educational foundations. He said, "In administering the schools we must remember that what we do is for the benefit of the country, not for the benefit of the people." Thus, the whole of education was made subservient to the State's own needs, providing on the one hand a practical training through a curriculum on western lines, on the other hand a moral education based on Confucian ethics and an emperor- centered nationalism. Together these two elements were to produce good citizens. The Rescript on Education in 1890 urged the people not to give up their native traditions, such as ancestor-worship, filial piety, loyalty to superiors and to the state.
In sum, this educational system was to become an essential unifying force in Japanese body politics; it was also fundamental to the rise and full development of an industrial society. The progress was astonishing. By 1880, there were enough primary schools providing three year primary education to Japanese children. The percentage of attendance of school age children rose from 46 (1886) to 95 (1906). Illiteracy was largely eliminated in Japan by the early 20th century.

Military reforms -- since Meiji leadership fell mostly on ex-samurai, it was natural that they were more inclined to military strengthening. Moreover, they were aware that Japan was facing the dangers of foreign attack and domestic disorder, and they could only save the country by strong rule and an efficient military machinery. From the late Tokugawas and the daimyo, the new government inherited certain assets such as arsenals and dockyards as well as those military establishment in Choshu and Satsuma. Fundamental military reforms started with the 1873 Conscription Law. In the place of the samurai-warriors, Japanese citizens were conscripted in a national army under the Ministry of Military Affairs. In the 1870s and 1880s, Yamagata restructured the army administration on German lines, providing for specialization in military training and duties, and the creation of a General Staff. Meanwhile, the period of conscription was raised to twelve years (nine years in reserve, three years in service), thereby creating a peacetime establishment of 73,000 and a total wartime strength of 200,000.
After the humiliation of the Triple Intervention, military build-up was intensified. By 1896, there was a total of 13 regular divisions and the whole force was equipped with modern rifles and artillery, mostly Japanese made. In the meantime, the Naval Ministry carried out naval construction. Intensive building programmes increased the number of Japanese warships from 17 (1872) to 28 (1894) and 76 (1903). Dockyard facilities and naval training were adequately provided at Yokosuka and Sasebo. Military industries were put under government control, as were other installations that had a military use, like the telegraph system, railways and telephones. Military reforms were carried out mainly by ex-samurai of Choshu and it followed first the French and later the German model. On the other hand, naval reforms were implemented by ex-samurai of Satsuma along British lines.
The effectiveness of such military buildup was well demonstrated firstly in the suppression of the Satsuma Rebellion (1877) and secondly in the defeat of China (1895) and finally in the triumph over Russia (1905). It proved to be capable of maintaining internal order and of defending Japan from foreign aggression.

Judicial reforms -- legal reforms were carried out with an intention to achieve respectability and equality with the West. They aimed at abolishing extra-territoniality of the unequal treaties. Much foreign guidance was needed for judicial reforms. Finally, a series of new laws appeared: Criminal Code (1882), Civil Code (1898), Commercial Code (1899). Other changes in the judicial system included the abolition of torture, the creation of a trained judiciary, and the setting up of rules of evidence and procedure for the courts. These achievements, alongside with Japan's victory in the Sino-Japanese War 1895, enabled the abolition of extraterritoriality in the late 1890s with the western countries.

Religious reforms -- the ban on Christianity was lifted and the Meiji government practised religious toleration. Foreign missionaries were allowed to propagate Christianity and carry out educational and medical work. However, Christianity made little headway among the Japanese. By 1900 less than one percent of the population became Christians. With the Meiji Restoration, the government patronized the spread of Shintoism for obvious political reasons. It assumed the character of a national faith. At the same time, Buddhism was also very influential in Japan. In fact, the majority of Japanese were both Shinto and Buddhist believers.