Account of the rise of nationalism in Japan by the late 19th century.

The rise of Japanese nationalism by the late 19th century had several characteristics: it was Emperor-centered, officially patronized, and linked up with foreign issues. A number of factors contributed to the rise of this peculiar form of Japanese nationalism.

Tokugawa origins -- the rise of Japanese nationalism found its roots in the late Tokugawa period. At a time of national danger (internal disorder and external threat), the educated classes were imbued with a strong sense of patriotism. These classes, including enlightened daimyo, farsighted samurai and rich merchants, sensed the imminent danger that was facing Japan as a nation. The country needed self-strengthening in order to survive in the wake of imperialism. As such, the anti-Tokugawa movement was more than a sheer power struggle, it spelt the need for a new leadership in a turbulent era to save the country. Meanwhile, the revival of Shintoism and the sonno movement in the 1860s created a symbol of Japanese unity --the Emperor. As we shall see, the Meiji leaders successfully exploited the symbol of "tenno" to rally the Japanese in a national crusade.

Promotion of Shintoism -- Shinto studies emphasized the divine and mystical origin of the Japanese emperor (tenno). They taught that the Sun Goddess was the founder of the state and Jimmu Tenno was the first emperor of Japan. This divinely established sovereignty was secured in an imperial succession that was destined to rule Japan eternally. Because of this divine origin, the Japanese race was braver, more virtuous and intelligent than all the other races. As children of the gods, the Japanese were entrusted with a divine mission to "save" the rest of the world. In short, Shintoism had three elements: a religious devotion to the Throne, a belief in divine mission, and a concept of the superiority of the Japanese race. These characteristics formed the essential national polity (kokutai) of Japan.
These concepts were exploited by the Meiji oligarchs to fan up Japanese nationalism in the late 19th century. They made Shintoism the state religion, and they wrote in Article One of the Meiji Constitution that Japan "shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal." By using in their service the symbol of the emperor, they were able to push forward their reforms, to appeal to the people's emotions, and to indoctrinate in the people's minds reverence to the emperor as well as loyalty and obedience to the Imperial Will. This emperor-centered nationalism was so successfully implanted that all ruling classes in Japan made use of it to further their interests. They included not only the Meiji oligarchs, but also the party leaders and the militarists.

Official patronage of nationalism -- that nationalism grew so rapidly was also due to other forms of official patronage. The Meiji government took various steps to mould the attitudes of the Japanese. Besides making the emperor a focus of national unity, they tried to ensure that the people had acquired the proper sentiments at school through a curriculum emphasis on loyalty and filial piety. The Imperial Rescript on Education 1890 made it clear that education was to be subordinate to the service of the state. In brief, the educational system was used as a means of arousing a greater sense of nationalism.
At the same time, the conscription law and military training made sure that Japanese adults were imparted with the sentiments of Bushido, loyalty and patriotism.
Several other factors enabled patriotic sentiments to spread throughout the population and thereby strengthened the nationalist spirit. For instance, the efficient means of communication (newspapers, publications and so on) were used for political propaganda and literature. Centralization also made the entire Japanese country sensible to official doctrines. Moreover, there was the upsurge of traditional, Japanese spirit. As a reaction to western influence, Japanese cultural heritage was revived, such as flower arrangement and tea ceremony. This helped to cultivate the Japanese identity.

Impact of foreign affairs -- as we have seen, the coming of the West in the mid-l9th century had aroused patriotism in Japanese minds. During the Meiji era, the upsurge of nationalism had a strong relation with foreign affairs. While the Japanese believed in their racial superiority and cultural identity, the reality of unequal treaties with the West injured their pride. The unsuccessful Iwakura mission in 1872-3 and abortive attempts at treaty revision in the 1880s had great impact on Japanese sentiments. Japanese were aware of their inferiority in terms of power politics. The upsurge of nationalism in relation to foreign affairs was aroused by a number of nationalist societies. The Genyosha (Black Ocean Society) and the Kokuryukai (Black Dragon Society) advocated expansion into Korea and Manchuria respectively in the late 19th century. Their activities certainly had influence on those expansionist. minded Japanese.
For various reasons, Japan went to war with China in 1894. The outcome was a Japanese victory. This victory brought immense benefits to Japan -- the Treaty of Shimonoseki and the revision of unequal treaties. These gains so heightened Japanese spirit that the government enjoyed a popularity that it never had. The upsurge of Japanese nationalism reached a climax. A second victory in the Russo-Japanese War 1905 further strengthened Japanese nationalism. Japan was recognized as a world power, and Japanese learnt that war paid good dividends and was the sure road to international recognition.

Conclusion -- Japanese nationalism had its own characteristics. It originated in the late Tokugawa period, but was nursed and fanned up during the Meiji period. Both internal and external developments had their part to play in this upsurge of Japanese nationalism by the late 19th century. Nevertheless, a change in Japanese attitude was noticeable. The successful Meiji reforms and victorious wars tended to remove the feelings of inferiority and contributed to the beginning of a period of nationalism characterized by "confidence" rather than "fear". This "confidence" was to bring disasters to Japan in coming decades.