Sino-Japanese War

"The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5 resulted from a clash of interests between China and Japan over the issue of Korea. " Discuss.

It is true that China and Japan went to war in 1894 over the issue of Korea. That the war took place in 1894, and not earlier, was due to a number of incidental factors, as we shall see later.

The importance of Korea to Meiji Japan - ever since the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government considered the control of Korea as vital to her national interests - strategically, economically, and politically.
Strategically, Korea had long been compared to a long dagger pointing towards the heart of Japan so that any country that controlled Korea would pose a threat to Japan’s security. Such a menace became real in the face of Russian expansion in the Far East ever since the mid-19th century. As early as 1860, Russia gained the Maritime Provinces from China, thus reaching the Pacific coast as far south as the northern tip of the Korean peninsula. The subsequent building of Viadivostock as a naval base furthered Russian ambition in that region. The Meiji leaders were increasingly convinced of the necessity of using Korea as a buffer state to protect Japan from the growing threat of Russia.

Economically, Korea was also vital to the development of Meiji Japan. In modernization and industrialization, Japan was desperately searching for foreign markets and raw materials. Japan also needed an outlet for her rapidly expanding population. She was thus forced on a path of expansion. Korea would inevitably become Japan’s first target after which it could be used as a base of operation for further expansion in Manchuria and China.

Politically, Korea was important to the Meiji government. The failure to shake off the unequal treaties through negotiations had finally convinced the Meiji leaders that Japan could only win recognition as a great power through demonstration of her military strength. Since the late 1880s, something very near to a “militarist spirit” had become apparent to all Japanese leaders. The Meiji government came to regard imperial expansion in Korea as the first step to win recognition as a great power and which would automatically bring treaty revision and political influence. Such a vigorous foreign policy was also supported by public opinion at home.

China’s interests on Korea -- China had claimed Korea as a vassal state since the Tang Dynasty and Korea had recognized China as overlord, offering tribute to her emperors. With the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, China’s suzeranity over Korea was re-affirmed though she seldom interfered in Korea’s internal affairs. Up to the mid-l9th century, Korea continued to be a tributary state of China. Indeed, despite her defeat in the first and second Anglo-Chinese wars, China still firmly upheld the traditional concept of a “Sino-centric cosmos”. She was thus determined to preserve Korea from Japan’s interference.

A contest of national destiny -- viewed from above, both China and Japan had great stakes in Korea, and mutual conflicts were inevitable. Nevertheless, it ought to be stated that their quarrel over Korea was a reflection of domestic developments in both countries since the mid-century. China first. The implementation of the Self-Strengthening Movement gave confidence to many Chinese leaders in the reassertion of China’s supreme position in Asia. Consequently, China challenged Russia in the Ili crisis and fought with France over Annam in the 1880s. She was prepared to teachJapan, an erstwhile vassal state, a lesson over Korea. Japan then. Her Meiji modernization similarly gave Japanese confidence. As a matter of fact, her war with China was not a war of mere adventure. It was a step desired and pushed forward by the whole nation both as an economic necessity and as a practical demonstration of power.
So interpreted, the Sino-Japanese War was firstly a test of national strength. It served to demonstrate which country was successful in her internal strengthening. Secondly, it was a contest for the future of the two nations. The victorious one would become the leader of Asian countries and gain recognition from the western powers.

Sino-Japanese conflicts over Korea -- a number of conflicts took place between China and Japan over Korea long before actual hostilities broke out in 1894. In the process, Japan took the offensive and gained numerous benefits. In the first years of the Meiji era, Japan failed to open normal diplomatic relations with Korea. Many Japanese leaders felt insulted. In 1873, a debate on an expedition to Korea took place within the official circles. Saigo and many others pressed for an invasion of Korea to pacify the exsamurai agitation for expansion. Iwakura, Ito and others, who had just returned from abroad, insisted on domestic reforms first. Finally, the pro-war faction was defeated and many of them, including Saigo and Itagaki, left the government. Thus, military action on Korea was postponed for, about two decades.

In 1876, Japan succeeded in opening Korea through the Treaty of Kanghwa. She was able to establish diplomatic relation with Korea and trade with the country. China, the suzerain, did not take positive action against Japan. In order to minimize Japan’s influence, China resorted to the traditional policy of “using barbarians against barbarians.” Consequently, with the help of China, the western powers were able to secure similar treaties with Korea.

In 1882, riots took place in Seoul and the Japanese legation was attacked. Both China and Japan sent troops to Korea. Confrontation was avoided for the time being because China was preoccupied with the Ili crisis while Japan with domestic affairs (party agitations, preparation for constitution). The whole matter was settled by the Treaty of Chemulpo in which Korea granted more concessions to Japan. The most important one was the Japanese right to send troops to Korea and to construct barracks at her legation.

In 1884, the pro-Japanese Progressive Party under Kim Ok-kyun staged an unsuccessful coup against the pro-Chinese faction. Once again, Chinese and Japanese troops faced each other in Korea. Preoccupied with the war with France, China, represented by Li Hung-chang, concluded the Tientsin Convention with Japan, represented by Ito Hirobumi. The agreement “virtually reduced Korea to a co-protectorate of China and Japan, eliminated China’s claim to exclusive suzeranity, and confirmed Japan’s right to send troops.” Japan’s position in Korea was further strengthened. The next decade witnessed Sino-Japanese rivalry in Korea. China was more successful in strengthening her influence through Yuan Shih-kai, Chinese Resident in Korea, and the pro-China Taewongon.

Immediate causes -- the murder of Kim Ok-kyun in 1894 at Shanghai by a Korean added fuel to the already tense situation. The Japanese considered the incident a direct affront, and secret societies such as the Genyosha agitated for action. At about this time, the Tong Hok Society in Korea rose in rebellion. This provided Japan with a casus bern. At the request of the Korean King, China sent troops to Korea after duly notifying Japan in accordance with the Tientsin Convention. Though not requested to do so, Japan also sent troops, claiming that her subjects needed protection. By the time both troops arrived, the uprising had already been suppressed. China then proposed simultaneous departure, but Japan refused. Instead, the Japanese proposed that both China and Japan jointly carried out reforms in Korea. China refused. An impasse was resulted.
It has been suggested that Japan deliberately wanted to exploit the situation and make war with China to control Korea against Russian expansion, especially in view of the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891. There was another important factor as well. Since the opening of the first Japanese Diet in 1890, the oligarchs were severely attacked by the political parties as well as chauvinistic societies for their over-cautiousness on the Korean question. Now that a force had been sent over to Korea, its withdrawal without acquiring any substantial advantages or gains would surely provide a good pretext to the political parties to attack the government.
In the course of Sino-Japanese confrontation, the western powers failed to mediate. Britain, in particular, assured Japan of her neutrality in case of war.

On July 25, 1894, the Japanese navy sank the steamer Kowshing in the Korean Bay although there was no declaration of war. On August 1, China and Japan declared war on each other. As events turned out, China was humiliatingly defeated on land and at sea. On April 17, 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed to end the war.