Eastern Question

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Conflicting interests of the European powers

Differences of the European Powers in the congresses during 1818-1822

The Origin of the Eastern Question

Introduction

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire stretched from Asia Minor to North Africa. It was still substantially intact and in South-east Europe, bordered Austria and Russia. In Europe the Sultan still ruled over some 238,000 square miles and some 8 million people, mostly Christians. By 1908, Turkish territory in Europe had been greatly reduced in extent.

The Eastern Question

This term covered the problems caused in the nineteenth century through the decline in power of the Ottoman Empire. Lord Morley summed up the Eastern Question as "that intractable and interwoven tangle of conflicting interests, rival peoples, and antagonistic faiths".

The specific problems were as follows.

(a) Turkey was an Asiatic (Oriental) power ruling European territory. As the Turks differed in race, creed and social customs, they had never been accorded an equal place among the European Christian powers. This was changed in 1856

(b) Turkey misgoverned millions of Christians. As the vast administrative machine based on Constantinople decayed, her subjects were governed with greater inefficiency and harshness.

(c) Periodic outbreaks of revolt occurred against the inept and unjust rule. Gradually small subject Christian nationalities organised themselves to fight for independence. The first serious revolt was by the Serbs in 1804.

d) Turkey had no effective answer to the problems of her empire.

The Sultans either had difficulty in implementing reforms owing to the opposition of vested interests or refused to consider them. Suggestions of the European powers were ignored or implemented only when force was threatened.
Turkey's response to rebellion was massacre and murder. The government had no constructive ideas. Again, it was prepared to make concessions only if the European powers threatened the use of superior force.

(e) The relationship which should exist between European powers, Turkey and her empire was never certain. The position first became serious when Russia contemplated partitioning the ottoman Empire, first with Austria in 1781, and then with France in March 1801.

European powers and Turkey

No agreement was ever reached for long among European powers as to the most appropriate policy to adopt towards Turkey. Their conflicting interests complicated the problem of how best order and stability could be maintained in the "power vacuum" created in Europe as Turkey declined.

The basic alternatives were as follows.

(a) Preservation of Turkey.

Britain and Austria once hoped that Turkey might reform her administration and act as a bulwark against Russian expansion. Towards the end of the 1870s both abandoned this policy for different reasons.

(b) Dismemberment of Turkey.

This policy came to be followed by four of the powers.

Except for temporary policies of supporting the status quo after 1833 and 1897, Russia pursued expansionist policies at Turkey's expense. These policies wore carried out from the direction of the Black Sea coast, the eastern flank as Persia declined, and later from the Balkans.

Before 1840 and after 1871, France had designs on the African territories of the Sultan.

In the 1870s Austria embarked on an active expansionist policy to compete with Russia and as compensation for the loss of influence in Germany.

In the 1870s Britain decided that independent Balkan states might stabilise the area better than tyrannical Turkish rule.

Conflicting interests of the European powers

The powers involved, Russia, France, Britain and Austria, had various interests with regard to the Ottoman Empire.

(a) Russia. Her interests were as follows.

Political and strategic. Russia was a land-locked state in winter when the sea froze and blocked her ports. Hence she was anxious to extend her power along the Black Sea and gain access to the Mediterranean.

Religious. Since 1774 the Tsar had had rights as protector of the Greek Orthodox Christians.

Racial. The Tsar considered himself the natural protector of fellow Slavs in the Ottoman Empire.

(b) France. This country had two important interests.

Politico-economic. Since Napoleon Bonaparte's time France had entertained hopes of extending her power in North Africa and Asia Minor. She therefore supported dependencies of Turkey in these parts in their resistance to the Sultan. In 1840 her policy of supporting Egypt against Turkey received a severe setback.

Religious. France had treaty rights as protector of Roman Catholic interests in the Ottoman Empire.

(c) Britain. This country had developing interests in the Mediterranean for commercial and strategic reasons. Britain was determined to:

protect the route to India;

oppose the intention of France and Russia to dismember Turkey. Britain preferred to see the weak power of Turkey in control of the vital seas to the development of Russian and French influence in Asia Minor and the Persian Gulf.

(d) Austria. Her interests in the Ottoman Empire were until the 1870s of a defensive nature. They were as follows.

Strategic. Austria was concerned lest a strong power threatened her by controlling part of the Danube.

Racial and political. As a large proportion of her subjects were Slavs they were closely akin to the peoples in the Ottoman Empire. Therefore any demands for independence from Turkish subjects might result in similar demands being made to Austria from her Slav subjects.

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